Field validity of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised in sex offender risk assessment

Several studies have concluded that scores from Hare's (2003) Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) predict reoffense among sexual offenders, but most of those studies examined the predictive validity of scores from trained research staff, not clinicians in the field scoring the measure as part of actual forensic assessments. Therefore, we examined the field validity of PCL-R scores that forensic evaluators assigned to 333 male sexual offenders who underwent evaluations during a civil commitment selection process. Overall, no PCL-R score was a significant predictor of sexually violent recidivism. Facet 4 was the only PCL-R score with an area under the curve (AUC) greater than .50 (AUC = .53, p = .85) and the only PCL-R score that approached statistical significance for predicting the combined category of violent or sexually violent offending (AUC = .63, p = .08). However, scores from a subset of evaluators revealed stronger predictive effects, indicating that predictive validity was higher for scores from some evaluators than others. Overall, these results suggest that the stronger predictive validity values in controlled research studies may not apply to all evaluators when the PCL-R is administered in the field.     

Incremental validity of the Psychopathy Checklist facet scores: predicting release outcome in six samples

The incremental validity of the 4 facet scores (Interpersonal, Affective, Lifestyle, Antisocial) of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; R. D. Hare, 1991, 2003) and the Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV; S. D. Hart, D. N. Cox, & R. D. Hare, 1995) was evaluated in 6 forensic/correctional samples with average follow-ups ranging from 20 weeks to 10 years. Results indicated that whereas Facet 4 (Antisocial) achieved incremental validity relative to the first 3 facets (Interpersonal, Affective, and Lifestyle) in predicting recidivism in all 6 samples, a block of the first 3 facets achieved incremental validity relative to the 4th facet in only 1 sample. Thus, although there was consistent support for the incremental validity of Facet 4 above and beyond the first 3 facets, there was minimal support for the incremental validity of Facets 1, 2, and 3 above and beyond Facet 4. The implications of these findings for the psychopathy construct in general and the PCL-R/SV in particular are discussed.     

Predicting recidivism with the Psychopathy Checklist: are factor score composites really necessary?

In two previous studies on general and violent recidivism (Walters & Heilbrun, 2010; Walters, Knight, Grann, & Dahle, 2008), the summed composite antisocial facet of the Psychopathy Checklist displayed incremental validity relative to the other 3 facets (interpersonal, affective, lifestyle), whereas the other 3 facets generally failed to demonstrate incremental validity relative to the antisocial facet. Because summed composite scores do not account for ordinal item distributions, the 6 Walters et al. (2008) samples were reanalyzed with factor score composites derived from a 4-factor confirmatory factor analysis. The results, however, showed little change from what had been obtained earlier with summed composite scores. Two additional samples not previously included in any incremental validity analyses of the Psychopathy Checklist evidenced a 3-factor structure, with the lifestyle and antisocial facets merged into a single factor. This single factor displayed incremental validity relative to the interpersonal and affective facets, but the reverse was not true regardless of whether summed composite scores or factor score composites were used. A comparison of zero-order correlations from all 8 samples revealed that the antisocial summed composite score predicted significantly better than the summed composite scores for the other 3 facets and that a superordinate factor failed to improve on the performance of either the antisocial summed composite score or the antisocial factor score composite.     

Examining the utility of the PCL:SV as a screening measure using competing factor models of psychopathy

The correspondence between the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV; S. D. Hart, D. N. Cox, & R. D. Hare, 1995) and the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; R. D. Hare, 1991, 2003) was examined in forensic (N = 175) and correctional (N = 188) samples. Intermeasure correlations for Total scores (.95 forensic, .94 correctional) and the original 2-factor, D. J. Cooke and C. Michie's (2001) 3-factor, and R. D. Hare's (2003) 4-facet models (range = .87-.95) were high. Area under the curve values for the PCL:SV were .98 in both samples (cutoff = PCL-R Total score of 25). The PCL:SV performed well as a screen, maximizing false positive relative to false negative errors. Close correlations for prediction of violent recidivism in the correctional sample were obtained for the PCL-R (.42) and PCL:SV (.37). Results indicate the robust relation between the measures is maintained whether they are completed on the basis of file review only or file plus interview and whether the same or different raters score the measures.     

The latent structure of psychopathy: a taxometric investigation of the Psychopathy Checklist Revised in a heterogeneous sample of male prison inmates

A taxometric analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) is conducted on a group of 409 male maximum-, medium-, and minimum-security federal prison inmates using the four PCL-R facet scores (interpersonal, affective, impulsive lifestyle, and antisocial behavior) as indicators. Results obtained from three quasi-independent taxometric procedures-mean above minus below a cut, maximum eigenvalue, and latent mode factor analysis-reveal consistent support for a dimensional interpretation of the psychopathy concept in a moderately heterogeneous sample of participants. On the basis of these results, it is concluded that psychopathy falls along a continuum and that high and low scores on the PCL-R reflect quantitative differences in degree rather than qualitative differences in kind.     

Domestic violence and psychopathic traits: distinguishing the antisocial batterer from other antisocial offenders

The proliferation of specialized domestic batterer treatment programs suggests that batterers differ from other offenders in important ways. The psychopathic personality represents a constellation of personality traits, which may be relevant to the differentiation of batterers from other offenders. In a sample of 172 county jail inmates, we examined whether antisocial batterers can be distinguished from the larger pool of antisocial offenders on the basis of the four-facet model of psychopathy identified for the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R). Batterer/non-batterer status was positively related to the PCL-R affective facet and negatively related to the lifestyle facet, but there was no significant relationship between PCL-R total scores and this criterion. Results suggest that antisocial batterers are characterized by deficient affective experience and by reduced impulsivity and irresponsibility compared with other antisocial offenders. Implications are discussed in light of specialized treatments for batterers.     

A prospective comparison of two measures of psychopathy in the prediction of institutional misconduct

This study examined the predictive validity of two widely used measures of psychopathic traits, the Psychopathy Checklist--Revised (PCL-R; Hare, 2003) and the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996). Records of institutional infractions were obtained for a young adult sample of prison inmates (N = 46), who were followed for approximately two years following administration of these two scales. The PPI total and two factor scores predicted the total number of infractions committed (r ranging from .28 to .36). PPI Factor I showed some evidence of stronger associations with non-aggressive infractions (r = .36), whereas PPI Factor II was the strongest correlate of aggressive misconduct (r = .24). The total and facet scores of the PCL-R were not significantly predictive of any form of institutional misconduct, with effect sizes ranging from negligible to small (median r = .14, r ranging from -.01 to .21).     

The Roles of Childhood Maltreatment and Psychopathy in Sexual Recidivism of Treated Sex Offenders

Abstract

The Intensive Treatment Program for Sexual Offenders (ITPSO) at the Correctional Service of Canada (CSC) provides cognitive-behavioral group treatment to federally incarcerated sex offenders. Follow-up data for 81 of these men were examined, looking at psychopathy and childhood maltreatment history as potential predictors of recidivism using Survival Analysis. Offenders who had been placed in foster care as a child were more likely to recidivate; however when PCL-R Factor 2 scores (a history of antisocial behavior) were entered, they predicted over and above foster care history. Childhood physical abuse predicted sexual recidivism; however, childhood sexual abuse and PCL-R scores did not predict sexual recidivism. PCL-R Factor 2 scores predicted violent recidivism.     

Response perseveration in psychopaths: Interpersonal/affective or social deviance traits?

In order to clarify the role of the two broad components of psychopathy (interpersonal/affective and social deviance; R. D. Hare, 2003) in explaining maladaptive response perseveration in psychopaths, as well as the role of reflection after punished responses in this deficit, the authors administered a card perseveration task to 47 Spanish male inmates assessed using the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; R. D. Hare, 1991). Hierarchical regressions showed that psychopaths' maladaptive perseveration (more cards played and less money earned) was uniquely predicted by the social deviance features of psychopathy (PCL-R Factor 2)--particularly by its impulsive and irresponsible lifestyle facet (PCL-R Facet 3)--and not by its interpersonal/affective features (PCL-R Factor 1). Moreover, perseveration was related to a lack of reflection both after punishment and after reward feedback. The authors' results, in conjunction with previous evidence indicating perseverative deficits in several impulse control disorders, suggest that response perseveration may not be specific to psychopathy but rather is associated more generally with the externalizing dimension of psychopathology.     

Reliability and construct validity of the psychopathy checklist - revised for Latino, European American, and African American male inmates

The utility of the psychopathy construct in predicting laboratory deficits, criminal behavior, response to intervention, and recidivism has been well documented in European American populations. However, less is known about the manifestation and correlates of psychopathy in Latino and African American populations. The present study examined the reliability and construct validity of the Psychopathy Checklist - Revised (PCL-R; R. D. Hare, 2003) in 83 Latino inmates compared with matched samples of African Americans and European Americans. Results provide preliminary evidence that the PCL-R provides a reliable and valid measure of psychopathy in Latinos, with generally similar patterns emerging across external correlates; however, some ethnic group differences were noted for relationships between psychopathy indicators and some external correlates.     

Two subtypes of psychopathic violent offenders that parallel primary and secondary variants

Although psychopathy usually is treated as a unitary construct, a seminal theory posits that there are 2 variants: Primary psychopathy is underpinned by an inherited affective deficit, whereas secondary psychopathy reflects an acquired affective disturbance. The authors investigated whether psychopathy phenotypically may be disaggregated into such types in a sample of 367 prison inmates convicted of violent crimes. Model-based cluster analysis of the Revised Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R; R. D. Hare, 2003) and trait anxiety scores in the psychopathic subgroup (n = 123; PCL-R > or = 29) revealed 2 clusters. Relative to primary psychopaths, secondary psychopaths had greater trait anxiety, fewer psychopathic traits, and comparable levels of antisocial behavior. Across validation variables, secondary psychopaths manifested more borderline personality features, poorer interpersonal functioning (e.g., irritability, withdrawal, poor assertiveness), and more symptoms of major mental disorder than primary psychopaths. When compared with the nonpsychopathic subgroup (n = 243), the 2 psychopathic variants manifested a theoretically coherent pattern of differences. Implications for etiological research and violence prevention are discussed.     

Psychopathy in adolescence and criminal recidivism in young adulthood: longitudinal results from a multiethnic sample of youthful offenders

Very few studies to date have examined the long-term predictive validity of psychopathy among juveniles. The current study reports general and violent recidivism data for an ethnically heterogeneous sample of male offenders (n = 75) who had been administered the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL: YV) in 1996 when they were on average 16 years of age. Neither total scores nor factor scores of the PCL: YV predicted general or violent reconvictions throughout this time frame. These modest effects underscore recent concerns raised about the utility of psychopathy as a risk factor for future criminality, particularly among multiethnic offender samples.     

The prediction of violent and nonviolent criminal behavior in a methadone maintenance population

The utility of traits associated with Antisocial Personality Disorder in making risk assessments of violent and nonviolent crimes was examined in 254 subjects sampled from a methadone maintenance population. A factor analysis of a number of baseline measures resulted in five factors measuring hostility, insecure attachment, impaired reality testing, antisocial personality, and empathy. These factors were used in logistic regression analysis to predict charges for violent and nonviolent crimes over a 2-year period. Individuals with high scores on the antisocial personality factor had an increased risk of both violent and nonviolent criminal charges. Individuals with low scores on the empathy factor were at high risk for violent crimes. In an analysis using the factor components rather than the factors, the measures of perspective-taking and a socialization were associated with violent criminal charges, and the measure of psychopathy, but not antisocial behavior, was associated with nonviolent criminal charges. The results support the use of measures of personality traits in addition to measures of a history of antisocial behavior in making violence risk assessments in substance-dependent patients. The DSM construct and diagnosis of Antisocial Personality Disorder may be enhanced by greater emphasis on personality traits associated with antisocial behavior.     

The interpersonal measure of psychopathy: construct and incremental validity in male prisoners

The authors examined the construct and incremental validity of the Interpersonal Measure of Psychopathy (IM-P), a relatively new instrument designed to detect interpersonal behaviors associated with psychopathy. Observers of videotaped Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) interviews rated male prisoners (N = 93) on the IM-P. The IM-P correlated significantly with the PCL-R total score. Moreover, the IM-P was preferentially related to the interpersonal rather than the affective and antisocial lifestyle features of psychopathy. IM-P scores were significantly correlated with age, antisocial behaviors, and self-reported fear, anxiety, and socialization (in reverse). Hierarchical multiple regression analyses demonstrated that although the IM-P exhibited incremental validity beyond the PCL-R total score in detecting self-reported fear, anxiety, and several personality traits, it did not exhibit much incremental validity beyond PCL-R Factor 1. These findings raise questions concerning the unique assessment contribution of the IM-P beyond PCL-R Factor 1. Potential reasons for these findings and alternative means of enhancing the interpersonal assessment of psychopathy are discussed.     

Predicting criminal justice outcomes with the Psychopathy Checklist and Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form: a meta-analytic comparison

Studies that have used either the Psychopathy Checklist--Revised (PCL-R) or the Lifestyle Criminality Screening Form (LCSF) to predict criminal justice outcomes (disciplinary adjustment and recidivism) were subjected to meta-analysis and compared. Analogous results were obtained with the PCL-R and LCSF even though the PCL-R takes 2-3 hours and the LCSF 10 minutes to complete. It is concluded that pending further evaluation in which these assessment measures are directly compared, the cost-effectiveness of the LCSF makes it an attractive alternative to the PCL-R in situations where risk of future offender disciplinary maladjustment or recidivism is of principal concern.     

Criterion-related validity of the three-factor model of psychopathy: personality, behavior, and adaptive functioning

The Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) has been conceptualized as indexing two distinct but correlated factors. Previous research has established that these factors demonstrate distinct patterns of relations with external criteria. However, more recent findings suggest that the PCL-R psychopathy construct may encompass three distinguishable factors, reflecting affective, interpersonal, and behavioral symptoms. Here, we evaluated the validity of this newer three-factor model of the PCL-R factors with reference to external criteria from the domains of personality, antisocial behavior; and adaptive functioning in a sample of 310 incarcerated offenders. The interpersonal factor was related to social dominance, low stress reactivity, and higher adaptive functioning; the affective factor was correlated with low social closeness and violent offending; and the behavioral factor was associated with negative emotionality, disinhibition, reactive aggression, and poor adaptive functioning. These findings provide support for the convergent and discriminant validity of these psychopathy facets.     

Psychopathy and APD in Non-forensic Patients: Improved Predictions or Disparities in Cut Scores?

Psychopathy has traditionally been viewed as a distinct syndrome that is superior to Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) for the prediction of violent and aggressive behavior. However, direct comparisons of psychopathy and APD are infrequent and mostly occur in correctional populations. Moreover, any observed differences could simply reflect a disparity in cut scores. The constellation of Psychopathy Checklists (PCL-R, PCL:SV, and PCL:YV) set the minimum cut score at 75% (e.g., ≥30 of 40 for the PCL-R), which is far more stringent than what is required for the DSM-IV APD adult criteria (i.e., ≥ 3 of 7 or 42.9%). For use in a non-forensic setting, we re-examined the MacArthur Risk Assessment data set to evaluate the usefulness of the PCL:SV and APD for short-term predictions of violent and aggressive acts. Using the ≥75% cut score to predict violence produced low sensitivities for both the psychopathy (.18) and APD adult criteria (.14) but very high specificities (.94). Reducing the cut score to approximately 40% greatly improved sensitivity rates (.62 for psychopathy and .85 for Adult APD criteria) at the expense of specificity (.59 and .40 respectively). In making multiple comparisons, psychopathy did not appear superior to APD adult criteria in predicting violent or other aggressive behavior. Instead, both constructs had limited predictive power with patients in a non-forensic setting. On an item level, specific indicators of violent behavior were explored.     

Four-facet PCL-R structure and cognitive functioning among high violent criminal offenders

High violent inmates (N = 126) were administered the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R; Hare, Clark, Grann, & Thornton, 2000; Hare et al., 1990) and neuropsychological measures. No significant correlations were present between the overall PCL-R score and 14 cognitive measures. A violence score, computed as the total number of violent acts across all situations and types, was significantly correlated with the PCL-R total score and Facet 2 but not with the other three facets. Our data suggest that Facet 2 elevations may prove relevant to violence risk assessment; this link, however, needs further exploration with larger samples.     

Validity of factors of the Psychopathy Checklist--Revised in female prisoners: discriminant relations with antisocial behavior, substance abuse, and personality

The validity of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) has been examined extensively in men, but its validity for women remains understudied. Specifically, the correlates of the general construct of psychopathy and its components as assessed by PCL-R total, factor, and facet scores have yet to be examined in depth. Based on previous research conducted with male offenders, a large female inmate sample was used to examine the patterns of relations between total, factor, and facet scores on the PCL-R and various criterion variables. These variables include ratings of psychopathy based on Cleckley's criteria, symptoms of antisocial personality disorder, and measures of substance use and abuse, criminal behavior, institutional misconduct, interpersonal aggression, normal range personality, intellectual functioning, and social background variables. Results were highly consistent with past findings in male samples and provide further evidence for the construct validity of the PCL-R two-factor and four-facet models across genders.     

Predictive validity of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version for general and violent recidivism

Several authors have expressed concern regarding the use of youth psychopathy assessments in determinations of risk for general and violent offending. The Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) was completed with 182 male adolescent offenders in this prospective study (average 14.5 month follow-up) of general and violent recidivism. Both a two-factor and three-factor model of the PCL:YV significantly predicted general and violent recidivism at a predictive accuracy ranging from 68 to 63%. However, regression analyses indicated these associations were explained primarily by behavioral psychopathic symptoms, rather than interpersonal or affective traits. Implications for the use of psychopathy assessments for risk during adolescence are discussed.